Public Transit-Oriented Development in Iran: Introducing a Functional System

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Assistant Professor, Department of Urban Planning and Design, Faculty of Art, University of Bojnord , Bojnord, Iran

Abstract

Introduction: Sustainable mobility cannot necessarily include developing public transit infrastructure with insufficient demand, limited accessibility, an unattractive physical environment for active transportation, and convenient car ownership and use. On this, quality public transit infrastructure equipped with new urban developments around the stations (with high local access) under changing public policies has made the basic foundation of urban movement and development integration known as Transit Oriented Development (TOD). A few studies have been conducted on TOD, mostly as local case studies focused on the physical features of urban environments, including density, land use mix, and urban design. However, limited studies have focused on policymaking, planning, implementation, and affective factors. The present study sheds light on the integration between urban movement and development under the TOD idea in Iran. It addresses the challenges, opportunities, and requisites for integration in Iran and how this can reach its objectives in Iranian cities successfully. The present study is organized into four main sections. After the problem statement and a literature review, the second section describes the research methodology and elaborates on why and how such a model is employed. Section 3 analyses the research context (Iranian cities) concerning the model factors. The results are then discussed, the interrelationships and inter-system impacts are delineated, and implications are made for developing the integration approach in Iran.
Methodology: This study uses the analytical model of the Functional System based on Systems Theory and Complexity, which configures the relationships among all influencing factors, including Demand for such a kind of development model, Supply from role players, and the Context of Iranian cities. The model helps identify opportunities and challenges related to each factor, public needs, what can be done to address them, and to what extent such actions are convergent and effective. Previous studies inspire the present research to select the TOD categories and sub-categories. The analyses on the case of Iran are then realized by using local journal papers, technical reports, policy documents, regulations, design guides, surveys, etc.
Results: Demand. Firstly, citizens' needs and the potential of the integration approach to address them were investigated. Although it is required to conduct a detailed study using public surveys, for instance, efforts are made 
to make connections between them based on studying documents and direct field surveys—the urban context in Iran. Studying diverse factors associated with the context of Iranian cities helps to understand the ruling circumstances on "supply" actions by policymakers, planners, and practitioners. The present study categorizes such factors into four groups: Spatio-Physical, Social, Economic, and Policy-Governance. Supply. Although clear "demands" are raised from urban communities in Iran, "supplied" efforts at local and national levels have been partial, divergent, and with no clear impact on addressing public needs, so the integration has not yet been well-structured in Iran. Surely, this is the consequence of different social, economic, physical, and policy determinants with varying levels of direct and indirect impacts.
 
Discussion:This study employed the Functional System Model to examine the prospects, challenges, and prerequisites for developing an integrated urban development and movement model in Iran. The model was instrumental in identifying the influencing factors that shape urban development processes and highlighted the complexities inherent in establishing an effective transit-oriented development (TOD) framework in the country. The results underscore the potential of the Functional System Model to provide a comprehensive understanding of the existing urban context, facilitating more informed decision-making by policymakers, planners, and practitioners.
The findings suggest that the Functional System Model enables a nuanced analysis of Iran’s urban landscape, illuminating the intricate interplay of various factors that affect the supply and demand dynamics within TOD initiatives. A key insight revealed by the study is the importance of policy coordination. Iranian policymakers are now increasingly aware that transit-oriented policies on their own may not yield the desired outcomes unless they are aligned with complementary policies and actions. For instance, policies such as subsidized fuel prices can significantly undermine the effectiveness of TOD efforts by incentivizing car dependency and reducing the attractiveness of public transit. This highlights the necessity of adopting a holistic and integrated policy approach to ensure the success of urban development initiatives.
Moreover, the study suggests that the Functional System Model has broader applicability beyond TOD planning in Iran. Its capacity to provide a holistic perspective on urban development makes it a valuable tool for analyzing other urban issues. By encompassing various factors such as socio-economic conditions, infrastructure quality, policy frameworks, and urban dynamics, the model facilitates a comprehensive assessment of challenges and opportunities, offering valuable insights for sustainable urban planning in diverse contexts across the country.
Figure 2 illustrates the systemic interdependencies between transit-oriented policies and other influential factors, emphasizing the need for an integrated approach. This further validates the model's utility as a decision-support tool that can guide strategic planning and foster a deeper understanding of the urban development challenges facing Iran.
 
Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of conducting more detailed investigations into each factor of the Functional System Model to enhance its applicability and effectiveness. Specifically, further research is needed to refine the understanding of the "demand" factor, which plays a crucial role in shaping the success of TOD initiatives. This can be achieved by employing direct surveys that adopt a bottom-up approach, engaging local communities, stakeholders, and residents to gather valuable insights into their transportation needs, preferences, and challenges. Such an approach will ensure that the planning process is inclusive and responsive to the unique characteristics of each urban area.
Additionally, to provide a more precise understanding of the potentials and challenges associated with TOD planning in Iran, it is recommended that future studies conduct in-depth interviews with Iranian professionals and experts in the field. These interviews can offer valuable perspectives on the practical and contextual factors that influence the implementation of TOD policies, shedding light on the barriers and opportunities specific to the Iranian context.
The study also reiterates the importance of examining the "context" factor in greater detail. To increase the generalizability and applicability of the research findings, it is highly recommended to include a diverse range of cities, urban fabric types, and demographic profiles across Iran in future investigations. By considering variations in urban morphology, socio-economic conditions, and cultural preferences, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that shape urban development in different contexts.
Overall, this study underscores the critical role of adopting an integrated and context-sensitive approach to urban development planning in Iran. By leveraging the Functional System Model and conducting further research into its various factors, policymakers and planners can develop more effective strategies for addressing the challenges of urbanization, enhancing the quality of life for citizens, and promoting sustainable urban growth. The findings also highlight the need for continued collaboration between researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to ensure that urban development initiatives are grounded in evidence-based insights and aligned with the broader goals of sustainability and resilience.

Highlights

The model of the Functional System would help determine the influencing factors in developing the integration approach and their relationships in Iran and can effectively provide a holistic view of the subject. "Supplied" efforts at local and national levels have been partial, divergent, and have had no clear impact on addressing public needs, so the integration has not yet been well-structured in Iran. 

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Abbaszadegan, M., Rezazadeh, R., & Mohammadi, M. (2011). Transit oriented development and role of Tehran subway system. Bagh-e-Nazar, 17(8), 43-58. (in Persian) Transit Oriented Development and Role of Tehran Subway System
Abdi, M. H. (2021). Towards Transit-Oriented Development in Iran Understanding Policy, Planning and Urban Design Prerequisites. Thesis (Doctoral), E.T.S. Arquitectura (UPM), Madrid, Spain. DOI: 10.20868/UPM.thesis.67356
Ahadi, M. R. & Shah-Hossieni, L. (2021). Principles of transit Oriented Development for the Future of City planning, Journal of Human Geography Research, 53(2), 653-672. (in Persian) DOI: 10.22059/jhgr.2020.215905.1007302
Alfonzo, M. (2005). To Walk or Not to Walk? The Hierarchy of Walking Needs. Environment and Behavior, 37(6), 808-836. DOI: 10.1177/0013916504274016
Alizadeh, H., Shahmoradi, B., Abdi, M., & Rahimi, A. (2013). Developing Transit-oriented Strategies for Sanandaj City Center, Iran. International Journal of Transportation Engineering, 3(1), 141-50. DOI: 10.22119/ijte.2014.4785
Asadollahfardi, G., Asadi, M., Sabermanesh, A., & Mirmohammadi, M. (2015). Impacts of transit- oriented development in the management of air pollution and traffic congestion: a case study of Tehran’s bus rapid transit system. Environmental Quality Management, 25(1), 41-54. DOI: 10.1002/tqem.21441
Behzadfar, M., & Zabihi, M. (2011). Transit-oriented development: Plan making guideline in urban areas. Bagh-e-Nazar, 18(8), 37-48 (in Persian). Transit-Oriented Development: Plan Making Guideline in Urban Areas
Boarnet, M., & Crane, R. (1998). Public Finance and Transit-Oriented Planning: New Evidence from Southern California. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 17(3), 206-219. DOI: 10.1177/0739456X980170030
Calthorpe, P. (1993). Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press.
Carmona, M., Tiesdell, S., Heath, T., & Oc, T. (2010). Public Places - Urban Spaces; The Dimensions of Urban Design. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.
Cervero, R. (1986). Suburban Gridlock. New Jersey: Rutgers.
Cervero, R. (1994). Transit-Based Housing in California: Evidence on Ridership Impacts. Transport Policy, 3, 174–83. DOI: 10.1016/0967-070X(94)90013-2
Cervero, R. (1998). The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Cervero, R. (2013). Linking urban transport and land use in developing countries. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 6(1), 7-24. DOI: 10.5198/jtlu.v6i1.425
Cervero, R., & Sullivan, C. (2011). Green TODs: marrying transit-oriented development and green urbanism. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 18(3), 210–218. DOI: 10.1080/13504509.2011.570801
Chava, J., Newman, P., & Tiwari, R. (2018). Gentrification in new-build and old-build transit-oriented developments: the case of Bengaluru. Urban Research & Practice, 117. 10.1080/17535069.2018.1437214
Chen, F., Wu, J., Chen, X., & Wang, J. (2017). Vehicle kilometers traveled reduction impacts of Transit-Oriented Development: Evidence from Shanghai City. Transportation Research Part D, 55, 227–245. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.006
Chester, M., Nahlik, M., Fraser, A., Kimball, M., & Garikapati, V. (2013). Integrating Lifecycle Environmental and Economic Assessment with Transportation and Land Use Planning. Environmental Science and Technology, 47, 12020−12028. DOI: 10.1021/es402985g
Chriqui, J., Leider, J., Thrun, E., Nicholson, L., & Slater, S. (2016). Communities on the Move: Pedestrian-Oriented Zoning as a Facilitator of Adult Active Travel to Work in the United States. Frontiers in Public Health, 4, 1-12. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2016.00071
Connolly, C. (2020). Urban Deisgn. International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition), 14, 39-46.
Crowley, D., Shalaby, A., & Zarei, H. (2009). Access Walking Distance, Transit Use, and Transit-Oriented Development in North York City Center, Toronto, Canada. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2110, 96–105. DOI: 10.3141/2110-12
Cullen, G. (1961). The Concise Townscape. New York: Architectural Press.
Curtis, C., Renne, J., & Bertolini, L. (2009). Transit Oriented Development: Making It Happen. Farnham, UK: Ashgate publishing.
De Vos, J., & Witlox, F. (2013). Transportation policy as spatial planning tool; reducing urban sprawl by increasing travel costs and clustering infrastructure and public transportation. Journal of Transport Geography, 33, 117-125. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.014
Dehghani, D., Dadashpor, H., & Mahmoodi, A. R. (2022). Relationship between Accessibility to Transport Network and Spatial Justice: A review of the literature. Urban Plann Knowl, 6(3), 1-22. (in persian) DOI: 10.22124/upk.2022.20380.1686
Deka, D. (2016). Benchmarking gentrification near commuter rail stations in New Jersey. Urban Studies, 54(13), 1-18. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26428363
Delsohn, G. (1989). The First Pedestrian. Planning, 55(12), 20-22. 
Dong, H. (2017). Rail-transit-induced gentrification and the affordability paradox of TOD. Journal of Transport Geography, 63, 1–10. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.07.001
Ewing, R., & Cervero, R. (2010). Travel and the Built Environment: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Planning Association, 76(3), 265-294. DOI: 10.1080/01944361003766766
Ewing, R., Hamidi, S., & B Grace, J. (2016). Compact development and VMT: environmental determinism, self-selection, or some of both? Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 43(4), 737-755. DOI: 10.1177/0265813515594811
Fenton, M. (2012). Community Design and Policiesfor Free-Range Children: Creating Environments That Support Routine Physical Activity. Childhood Obesity, 8(1), 4451. DOI: 10.1089/chi.2011.0122
Fernandez Milan, B. (2016). How participatory planning processes for transit-oriented development contribute to social sustainability. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 6(3), 520-524. DOI: 10.1007/s13412-014-0217-5
Fol, S., Dupuy, G., & Coutard, O. (2007). Transport Policy and the Car Divide in the UK, the US and France: Beyond the Environmental Debate. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 31(4), 802-818. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00755.x
Freilich, R. (1998). The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl. The Urban Lawyer, 30(3), 547-572. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27895129
Girling, C. (1993). The pedestrian pocket: reorienting Radburn. Landscape journal, 12(1), 40-50. DOI: 10.3368/lj.12.1.40
Haifeng Liao, F. (2015). Compact development and preference heterogeneity in residential location choice behaviour: A latent class analysis. Urban Studies, 52(2), 314-337. DOI: 10.1177/0042098014527138
Hasibuan, H., Soemardi, T., Koestoer, R., & Moersidik, S. (2014). The Role of Transit Oriented Development in constructing urban environment sustainability, the case of Jabodetabek, Indonesia. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 20, 622 – 631. DOI: 10.1016/j.proenv.2014.03.075
Hua Liu, J., Te Pai, J., & Lin, J. (2018). Planning Strategy for Green Transit Oriented Development Using A Multi-objecitve Planning Model. International review for spatial planning and sustainable development A: planning strategies and design concepts, 35-52. DOI: 10.14246/irspsd.6A.1_35
Jamme, H.-T., Rodriguez, J., Bahl, D., & Banerjee, T. (2019). A Twenty-Five-Year Biography of the TOD Concept: From Design to Policy, Planning, and Implementation. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39(4), 409-428. DOI: 10.1177/0739456X19882073
Kamruzzaman, M., Shatu, F., Hine, J., & Turrell, G. (2015). Commuting mode choice in transit oriented development: Disentangling the effects of competitive neighbourhoods, travel attitudes, and self-selection. Transport Policy, 42, 187–196. DOI: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2015.06.003
Kamruzzaman, M., Wood, L., Hine, J., Currie, G., Giles-Corti, B., & Turrell, G. (2014). Patterns of social capital associated with transit oriented development. Journal of Transport Geography, 35, 144–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.003
Kauffman, S. (1995). At home in the Universe: The search for the laws of self-organization and complexity. Nueva York: Oxford University Press.
Kheiroddin, R., Foruhar, A., & Imani, J. (2014). Purposeful development of metro stations: form spatial segregation to urban integration in Tehran metropolis case studies: Shari’ati and Shohada metro stations. Bagh-e Nazar, 27(10), 15-26 (in Persian). Purposeful Development of Metro Stations: From Spatial Segregation to Urban Integration in Tehran Metropolis Case Studies: Shari'ati and Shohada Metro Stations
Kimball, M., Chester, M., Gino, C., & Reyna, J. (2013). Assessing the Potential for Reducing Life-Cycle Environmental Impacts through Transit-Oriented Development Infill along Existing Light Rail in Phoenix. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 33(4), 395-410. DOI: 10.1177/0739456X13507485
Knowles, R., & Ferbrache, F. (2016). Evaluation of wider economic impacts of light rail investment on cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 430-439. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.002
Lam, D., & Head, P. (2012). Sustainable Urban Mobility. In O. Inderwildi, & S. King (Eds.), Energy, Transport, & the Environment Addressing the Sustainable Mobility Paradigm (pp. 359-371). London: Springe.
Leh, O., Kien Hwa, T., Omar, D., Abdullah, J., & Fong, T. (2010). Transit Oriented Neighbourhood for Better Environmental Health. International Conference on Science and Social Research (pp. 516-521). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: IEEE.
Lund, H., Willson, R., & Cervero, R. (2006). A Re-Evaluation of Travel Behavior in California TODs. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 23(3), 247-263. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43030775
McIntosh, J., Newman, P., Trubka, R., & Kenworthy, J. (2017). Framework for land value capture from investments in transit in car-dependent cities. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 10(1), 155-185. DOI: 10.5198/jtlu.2015.531
Mehta, V. (2008). Walkable streets: pedestrian behavior, perceptions and attitudes. Journal of Urbanism, 1(3), 217-245. DOI: 10.1080/17549170802529480
Ministry of Road and Urban Development (MRUD). (2020). National TOD guideline. Tehran: Unpublished document. (in Persian)
Mirmoghtadaee, M., & Adli, F. (2018). Transit Oriented Development and Women's Security. Haftshahr, 4(61), 172-185. (in Persian)
Montazeri, M. (2012). Station complexes, a new approach for financing rail transportation projects in inner city areas. The 12th international conference on traffic and transportation engineering. Tehran: Tehran Municipality.
Motieyan, H., & Mesgari, M. (2017). Towards Sustainable Urban Planning Through Transit Oriented Development (A Case Study: Tehran). International Journal of GeoInformation, 6(402), 1-16. DOI: 10.3390/ijgi6120402
Motieyan, H., & Mesgari, M. (2019). A Novel Spatial Index Using Spatial Analyses and Hierarchical Fuzzy Expert System for Obtaining Green TOD: A Case Study in Tehran City. Geocarto International, 34(1), 1-22. DOI: 10.1080/10106049.2017.1353644
Mudigonda, S., Ozbay, K., Ozturk, O., Iyer, S., & Noland, R. (2014). Quantifying Transportation Benefits of Transit-Oriented Development in New Jersey. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2417, 111–120. DOI: 10.3141/2417-12
Newman, P. W. (2015). Transport infrastructure and sustainability: a new planning and assessment framework. Smart and Sustainable Built Environment, 4(2), 140-153. DOI: 10.1108/SASBE-05-2015-0009
Nilsson, I., & Delmelle, E. (2018). Transit investments and neighborhood change: On the likelihood of change. Journal of Transport Geography, 66, 167–179. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.12.001
Pojani, D., & Stead, D. (2014). Dutch planning policy: The resurgence of TOD. Land Use Policy, 41, 357–367. DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.06.011
Pozueta Echavarri, J., Lamiquiz Dauden, F., & Porto Schettino, M. (2009). La cuidad paseable. Madrid: CEDEX.
Rafieian, M., Asgari, H., & Sedigh, E. (2010). Using TOD in land use planning, the case of Sadeghiye metro station. Journal of human science 3, 14, 295-312. (in Persian) URL: http://hsmsp.modares.ac.ir/article-۲۱-۱۱۲۵۷-fa.html
Rayle, L. (2015). Investigating the Connection Between Transit-Oriented Development and Displacement: Four Hypotheses. Housing Policy Debate, 25(3), 531–548. DOI: 10.1080/10511482.2014.951674
Saldaña, R., & Wykowski, M. (2012). Racial Equity: New Cornerstone of Transit-Oriented Development. Race, Poverty & the Environment, 19(2), 13-15. Layout 1
Seo, M., Kim, A., & Kim, S. (2013). Environmental and Economic Impacts of Transit Oriented Corridors in Korea. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 12(2), 213-220. DOI: 10.3130/jaabe.12.213
Staricco, L., & Vitale Brovarone, E. (2018). Promoting TOD through regional planning. A comparative analysis of two European approaches. Journal of Transport Geography, 66, 45-52. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.011
Thrun, E., Leider, J., & Chriqui, J. (2016). Exploring the Cross-sectional Association between Transit-Oriented Development Zoning and Active Travel and Transit Usage in the United States, 2010–2014. Frontiers in Public Health, 4(3), 1-8. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2016.00113
Transportation Deputy of Ministry of Road and Urban Development (TD-MRUD). (2020). Urban Highways and Streets Design Guide (Section1: Fundamentals). Tehran: Unpublished document. (in Persian)
Van der Ryn, S., & Calthorpe, P. (1986). Sustainable Communities: A Mew Design synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
Von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General systems Theory: Foundations, development and applications. New York: Braziller.
Waldrop, M. (1992). Complexity: The Emerging science at the edge of order and chaos. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Wang, Y., Welch, T., Wu, B., Ye, X., & W. Ducca, F. (2016). Impact of Transit-Oriented Development Policy Scenarios on Travel Demand Measures of Mode Share, Trip Distance and Highway Usage in Maryland. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 20(3), DOI: 10.1007/s12205-016-0618-y
Wlodarczak, D. (2012). Smart growth and urban economic development: connecting economic development and land-use planning using the example of high-tech firms. Environment and Planning A, 44, 1255-1269. DOI: 10.1068/a44450
Xu, W., Guthrie, A., Fan, Y., & Li, Y. (2017). Transit-oriented development in China: Literature review and evaluation of TOD potential across 50 Chinese cities. The Journal of Transport and Land use, 1(10), 743-762. DOI: 10.5198/jtlu.2017.922
Yang, K., & Pojani, D. (2017). A Decade of Transit Oriented Development Policies in Brisbane, Australia: Development and Land-Use Impacts. Urban Policy and Research, 35(3), 1-16. 10.1080/08111146.2017.1294537
Zhang, J., & Fujiwara, A. (2009). Intrahousehold Interaction in Transit-Oriented Residential Choice Behavior Represented in Stated Preference Approach. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2134, 73-81. DOI: 10.3141/2134-09
Zhong, H., & Li, W. (2016). Rail transit investment and property values: An old tale retold. Transport Policy, 51, 33-48. DOI: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.05.007
Urban Planning Knowledge
Volume 8, Issue 2
2024
Pages 1-17

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 02 December 2023
  • Revise Date: 18 February 2024
  • Accept Date: 20 December 2024

Share

How to cite

Statistics